为什么会衰老?
◇◇新语丝(www.xys.org)(xys.dxiong.com)(xys1.dyndns.org)(xys.3322.org)◇◇
载新浪网方舟子专栏:
http://tech.sina.com.cn/focus/fangzhouzi/index.shtml
为什么会衰老?
·方舟子·
不同动物的寿命有长有短,果蝇的寿命只有几周,龟的寿命却可以长达
百年。植物也是如此,许多植物是一年生的,在一个生长季节就完成了生长、
结子、死亡的生命史,但是也有许多植物能活到千年以上,而且每一年都能结
子。生长在美国加利福尼亚州的刺果松(Pinus aristata)就是植物中的老
寿星,从其年轮计算,有的寿命已超过4500年,却丝毫没有衰老的迹象。
衰老的多样性,也是生物多样性的一部分。达尔文首先指出,自然选择
是导致生物多样性的主要机制。生物之所以能够进化,是因为生物的个体存
在变异,没有两个个体是完全相同的,它们在身体大小、对疾病的抵抗能力、
奔跑速度、视力强弱等方面都存在着差异。如果某个个体的某些性状适合于
在其生存环境中生活,它将会比其他个体活得长一些,留下的后代多一些。
代表这些性状的基因也就会遗传下去,并随着时间的推移,逐渐扩散开去。
长寿意味着可以多次生育,有可能留下更多的后代。但是长寿也意味着要花
更多的能量来维护自己的身体,并不一定比那些虽然短命,但是把全部能量
都投入到传宗接代的物种有优势。生物体的主要目的是繁殖,而它们的生存
能力和繁殖能力的高低取决于其生存环境。如果在一个适宜的环境中,一个
物种的寿命太短,自然选择将会让它们变长。反之,在一个恶劣的环境中,
长寿者将会被淘汰。因此我们不难理解为什么会出现不同的衰老模式。但是
从根本上说,衰老都是一种不良的性状,它既降低了生物体的生存能力,也
降低了其繁殖能力。那么,为什么自然选择没有把这种不良性状淘汰,反而
在生物界如此常见?
衰老是怎么起源的?为什么我们会衰老直至死亡?这是自人类诞生之日
起,就困扰着我们的难题。各个民族也都有神话、传说试图对此做出解释。
只有到了19世纪,才开始有科学家尝试对之做出科学解释。有人说这是自然
规律,生老病死,不可抗拒。这只是把问题换了一个说法,并没有给出真正
的原因。而且这条“自然规律”也并不普遍成立。那些通过细胞分裂的方式
进行无性繁殖的生物,例如海葵,虽然会因为生病或意外的原因而死亡,却
不会自然老死。如果细心培养,它们可以永褒青春。衰老而死乃是有性繁殖
的生物的特征。也有人说衰老死亡可以避免世界变得更拥挤。这是一种目的
论的说法,要接受它,我们需要首先相信天地间有神秘的力量做这种巧妙的
安排。死亡使得世界不那么拥挤,这是死亡的额外意义,却不是死亡的原因。
有人说衰老是基因程序决定的。的确我们现在经常见到与衰老有关的基因的
报道,研究人员也经常说“受编程的细胞死亡”。但这只是表明了我们是如
何衰老的,并没有告诉我们衰老是如何起源的,也即那些“衰老基因”都是
怎么来的。
显然,我们需要找出衰老的进化因素,才能最终回答这个问题。一种说
法是,老死是自然选择的结果。19世纪德国大生物学家魏斯曼就持这种观点。
他认为长寿是一种不合理的奢侈,那些身体已受尽生活磨难的个体继续活着
对其物种不仅无益,而且有害,因为它们在和年轻一代争夺生活资源。老死
为后代腾出了生存空间,省下了生活资源,有利于后代的生存,而自然选择
的结果,不就是留下更多的后代吗?但是这种貌似有理的说法,其实是违背
了自然选择的原理的。一个群体的老一辈的死亡,的确有利于后代的整体的
生存;但是,单个个体的死亡,却不能直接有利于它的后代的生存。自然选
择不可能为了群体的长远利益,而牺牲个体的直接利益。自然选择只能在对
个体及其后代有直接的优势时才能起作用,而衰老对个体及其后代而言,并
没有优势。
英国伟大的生物学家荷尔登(J.B.S.Haldane)在二十世纪四十年代首
先指出,老死并不是自然选择的结果,恰恰相反,乃是自然选择不起作用的
结果。另一位英国生物学家米达瓦(Peter Medawar)在1952年进一步阐述
了这个观点。自然选择是通过不同个体具有不同的繁殖能力而表现出来的,
因此,那些在个体丧失繁殖能力之前就起作用的基因,才受到自然选择的选
择。一个致命的基因如果在青少年时期就得到表达,病人很可能在留下后代
之前就已死亡,因此这样的基因将被自然选择所淘汰,很难遗传、扩散开去。
相反的,那些隐蔽起来等过了青壮年才表达的致命基因,它的携带者在患病
之前已经留下了后代,这样的基因是无法被自然选择所淘汰的,而会持续遗
传下去。自然选择会使对生存、繁殖有害的基因的表达时间越来越往后推。
随着时间的推移,必然有越来越多的只在老年时候表达出来的致命基因在群
体中累积起来,扩散开去。在每个人的身上就或多或少都有这种致命基因,
因此,也就不可避免地会衰老、死亡。而对无性生殖的生物来说,它们一直
保有生殖能力,自然选择一直在起作用,迫使它们一直保持健康,因此不会
衰老。
1957年,美国生物学家乔治·威廉斯(George Williams)对衰老理论
做了重要补充。他注意到了许多基因都具有多效性,在生物体的不同发育时
期可能有不同的作用,指出那些在生命的后期有害的基因,在生命发育的早
期并不一定都要保持沉默,只不过它们在当时能起到有益的作用。换句话说,
那些在生命的早期发挥正常的功能的基因,在生命的晚期即使没有发生突变,
也能造成损伤。这样的基因也会得到自然选择的青睐,因为自然选择更注重
在生命早期的益处,而无视生命晚期才出现的害处。这个假说和后来分子遗
传学的发现相符。许多在老年时导致癌症的基因,都与调节细胞的生长、分
化有关,在早期发育时起到重要的作用。
很显然,一个生物群体中,老年个体的数目高低与年轻个体的死亡率成
反比。如果年轻个体很少因为天敌、恶劣气候、食物短缺、传染病等因素
死亡,那么就会有许多个体能进入老年。反之,如果许多年轻个体都因故而
死,就较少有个体能活到老年。因此,如果衰老的起因是由于自然选择无法
清除导致衰老的坏基因,那么如果年轻个体的死亡率越高,坏基因就越没有
机会表达出来让自然选择清除,就会在后代中越积越多。我们可以预测,那
些生活在恶劣环境下的群体,就会整体上衰老得更早、更快。美国爱达
荷大学的斯蒂芬·奥斯达德(Steven Austad)对弗吉尼亚负鼠的观察巧妙
地验证了这个预测。弗吉尼亚负鼠做为一种寿命很短的哺乳动物,成了研究
哺乳动物衰老的有用工具。这种负鼠的寿命大多数不到两年。在其生命的第
二年,所有的弗吉尼亚负鼠都出现了衰老的迹象,例如体重减少,眼球出现
白内障,雌性生殖器官萎缩,生殖力下降。奥斯达德研究的是生活于佐治亚
州沿海一带的弗吉尼亚负鼠。在那里的岛屿和大陆都分布着负鼠群,不过,
生活在岛屿的负鼠天敌很少,而在大陆上则很容易成为多种天敌的食物。因
此,大陆上的负鼠面临着更大的生存压力,根据我们的预测,它们也会衰老
得更快,寿命更短。
奥斯达德发现,大陆的负鼠的确寿命比较短,但是这是不是由于衰老引
起的呢?为了回答这个问题,奥斯达德测定了从野外不同年龄的负鼠尾巴抽
取出来的胶原蛋白纤维的强度。胶原蛋白彼此之间能够相互交联而形成纤维。
随着年龄的增长,交联的胶原蛋白越来越多,导致胶原蛋白组成的组织失去
了弹性。奥斯达德把胶原蛋白纤维浸在尿素溶液中,然后拉扯胶原蛋白纤维。
尿素能够打破胶原蛋白纤维的交联,减少胶原蛋白纤维的机械强度,直到它
们承受不了拉扯而断裂。因此,交联的胶原蛋白数目越多,它们在尿素溶液
中能够承受拉扯的时间就越长。奥斯达德发现不仅胶原蛋白的交联数目随着
负鼠的年龄增长而增加,而且大陆负鼠要比岛屿负鼠更早出现这种衰老信号,
表明它们衰老得更快。
英国生物学家汉密尔顿(W.D.Hamilton)在六十年代为衰老理论建立了
数学模型。自七十年代以后,这个模型已被许多实验所证实。这
个衰老理论预测,如果我们让有性生殖生物的繁殖期提前,那么经过若干代
后,其寿命就会缩短。美国伊利诺大学芝加哥分校的戴维·梅兹(David Mertz)
用面包虫检验了这个预测。面包虫的寿命大约一年,在其约270天的成年时
期都能繁殖。梅兹对每一代面包虫,只选择那些在成年后的前10天产下的卵
培养。他的假设是,由这些早期卵产生的后代要比晚期卵产生的后代受到更
大的自然选择压力,将会倾向于更早产卵。经过12代后,面包虫早期生殖力
提高了大约10%,第一个月的产卵数目从417个增加到460个,而它们的寿
命也相应地缩短了,雄虫的寿命从271天降到231天,雌虫的寿命从228天降
到207天。
反过来,这个理论预测,如果延缓有性生殖的生物的繁殖期,那么,经
过若干代后就能延长其寿命。有多个实验室以果蝇为材料验证这个预测,都
得到类似的结果。果蝇长到两周左右就开始产卵。在其中一个实验中,研究
者将这些年轻的果蝇产的卵全都扔掉,只孵化那些年老果蝇(至少六周老)
下的卵。这样进行了十代以后,得到的果蝇的寿命是普通果蝇的两、三倍,
而且,它们显得更充满青春活力。它们更耐饥饿,更抗干燥,行走能力和
飞行能力也更强。
我们可以设想,如果我们也对人类进行类似果蝇的实验,强迫晚育,而
且在其后代患病时不用医学技术拯救而听任自然选择将其淘汰,那么进行十
代以后,人类的自然寿命也会明显延长。当然我们不可能做这种野蛮的实验。
要延年益寿,我们只能寻找别的办法。既然衰老是由于自然选择不起作用,
累积了太多有害基因的结果,我们能不能想办法去除这些有害基因呢?
几千年来,人类已通过人工选择的办法根据我们的需要培养了无数动植
物品种。人工选择与自然选择类似,也是一个去除坏基因、积累好基因的过
程,只不过基因好坏的标准,是培养者认定的。在20世纪初,遗传学刚刚建
立的时候,有许多人也想到要对人类进行一番人工选择,在西方国家掀起了
一场“优生学”运动。这场运动由于后来被纳粹德国拿来做为进行种族灭绝
大屠杀的借口,而臭名昭著。但是至今仍有不少人认为用符合人道的方法搞
“优生学”,未尝不可。那么我们有没有可能通过优生学的办法使人类变得
更长寿?
优生学的一种办法是让携带“坏”基因的人节育或绝育,从而消灭该
“坏”基因。但是,衰老并不是由个别的“坏”基因引起的,导致衰老的遗
传因素在所有的人身上都存在,因此是不可能通过这种办法将其消灭的。而
且我们在前面说过,有些导致衰老的基因在生命的早期具有正常的必要功能,
更不可能将其清除。优生学的另一种办法是让携带“好”基因的人多生,提
高该“好”基因在人群中的频率。某些人非常的长寿,这可能和他们携带了
能抗衰老的“长寿基因”有关。但是特别长寿的人只占人类的极小的比例,
提高他们的生殖率,对人群中长寿基因的频率几乎不会有影响。而且,我们
很难预测某个人是否会长寿,等到一个人以长寿出名时,他早已过了生育期,
没办法再让他留下更多的后代了。
分子遗传学的发展为我们征服衰老带来了新的希望。当人类基因组计划
接近尾声的时候,有些生物学家甚至宣称在20年内人类就能通过遗传工程而
长生不老。的确,我们已经开发出和正在试验多种遗传工程技术,比如基因
疗法已获得了一定程度的成功,在某个基因有缺陷时,我们可以往体内引入
有正常功能的基因加以弥补。或许有一天,我们也能用类似基因疗法的办法,
在适当的时候置换掉那些导致衰老的基因。但是根据我们上面介绍的衰老理
论,衰老乃是长期累积的许多致命基因表达的结果。这些基因可能有成百上
千个,与人体绝大多数的生物化学功能有关,并在不同时期表达。我们要
征服衰老,首先要弄清楚衰老的所有机制,这意味着要找到所有这些跟衰老
有关的基因,并了解它们的作用。这是一件极其复杂而困难的工作。即使找
到了各种跟衰老有关的基因,也并非在实际上都能够有办法、有能力将其置
换。这是一个并不令人乐观的希望。
(XYS20030922)
◇◇新语丝(www.xys.org)(xys.dxiong.com)(xys1.dyndns.org)(xys.3322.org)◇◇
272 comments:
1 – 200 of 272 Newer› Newest»phentermine 37.5 order phentermine tablets - phentermine 30 mg weight loss
xanax buy online no prescription xanax pills 2mg - xanax and alcohol euphoria
generic phentermine phentermine for depression - legal order phentermine
buy phentermine online phentermine online prices - who sells phentermine online
xanax for anxiety does drug test test xanax - xanax and alcohol bad
phentermine drug phentermine day 7 - should buy phentermine online
order phentermine order phentermine online cheap - phentermine 882
zolpidem no prescription order zolpidem no prescription - ambien side effects seizures
where to buy tramadol online can buy tramadol legally - tramadol 50mg in dogs
where can i order xanax online xanax side effects sleep - taking 4 xanax bars
buy phentermine phentermine online pharmacy - phentermine 50
phentermine sale phentermine erowid - buy phentermine online with mastercard
buy phentermine phentermine online doctor consultation - buy phentermine 37.5 online uk
tramadol online tramadol dosage and side effects - buy tramadol online pay cod
discount phentermine phentermine online pharmacy - legal order phentermine
phentermine pills phentermine purchase - is the phentermine online the real stuff
order tramadol no prescription tramadol 50mg with zoloft - tramadol 50mg tablets for dogs
buy phentermine phentermine give you energy - buy phentermine online without a rx
phentermine price phentermine 0597 - how buy phentermine online real
buy tramadol next day purchase tramadol - tramadol hcl for headache
order tramadol tramadol online to florida - tramadol online american express
generic phentermine buy generic phentermine online - order phentermine online uk
cheap tramadol 50mg tramadol high dose - buy tramadol online cash delivery
buy phentermine buy phentermine online vancouver - buy generic phentermine online
buy ambien ambien cr 20 mg - ambien cr generic release date
buy ambien ambien overdose fatal - ambien cr dosage strengths
ambien sleep ambien side effects on women - ambien vs.lorazepam for sleep
ambien sleep mail order ambien - difference between ambien cr generic
phentermine and methamphetamine good website order phentermine - safe order phentermine online
buy phentermine phentermine hcl 30mg online - phentermine hcl 30mg online
buy tramadol online tramadol hcl ep - cheap online tramadol no prescription
can you buy tramadol online buy tramadol online cod - buy tramadol 50mg
buy tramadol online order tramadol no prescription - buy tramadol online overnight delivery
buy ambien online ambien cr and headaches - buy zolpidem no prescription online
buy ambien ambien medication for sleep - ambien cr picture
tramadol cheap tramadol online sale - tramadol for getting high
xanax online no prescription xanax 2mg bars generic - where to buy xanax in australia
zolpidem without prescription price for generic ambien cr - ambien cr coupon free
zolpidem drug will ambien show up on drug test - ambien side effects driving
buy xanax online Wisconsin buy xanax online in us - 2mg xanax 2 beers
ambien without prescriptions ambien cr generic form - when did generic ambien cr become available
generic xanax Iowa vicodin xanax and alcohol - xanax withdrawal symptoms insomnia
buy ambien overdose by ambien - ambien for cheap
buy cheap phentermine phentermine types - phentermine and zyrtec interactions
cheap ambien no prescription more than 10 mg ambien - ambien cr not working
ordering ambien online cheap ambien india - high off ambien yahoo answers
phentermine buy online buy phentermine online cheap - phentermine jonesboro ar
where to buy tramadol tramadol online illegal - tramadol pain killer dosage
cheapest ambien ambien pregnancy - ambien online no prescription mastercard
buy xanax Milwaukee white xanax bars r039 - xanax bars the effect
order tramadol online mastercard buy tramadol in uk - tramadol nights
phentermine without a prescription purchase phentermine online uk - phentermine online prescription online pharmacy
purchase phentermine online buy real phentermine online - can i buy phentermine online
ambien medication ambien cheap overnight - street price for ambien
buy phentermine phentermine purchase - phentermine illegal
buy tramadol hcl tramadol 10mg high - tramadol dosage dogs
buy tramadol online mastercard overnight ordering ultram online legal - generic tramadol
buy generic tramadol no prescription can order tramadol online legally - tramadol no rx
xanax online Texas xanax addiction more drug_side_effects - xanax side effects alcohol
generic xanax Nashville what is a generic xanax - took 4 xanax bars
generic xanax Rhode Island much xanax show up drug test - what does 1mg xanax look like
can you buy xanax online legally buy xanax online real - xanax drug flying
buy xanax online Mesa buy xanax 1mg online - effects xanax your body
tramadol online cod tramadol over the counter - tramadol 50mg capsules
buy tramadol in florida buy tramadol paypal - tramadol dosage recreational
buy xanax xanax xr 2mg - xanax pills green
percocet 325 mg percocet 5/325 grasscity - percocet 512 identification
ambien online pharmacy ambien drug experience - good stories ambien
buy percocet online percocet withdrawal pain - percocet withdrawal tips
buy tramadol no rx tramadol dosage for adults - buy tramadol online cod overnight
buy percocet no prescription percocet dosage daily - percocet online no prescription cheap
buy ambien ambien side effects muscle aches - ambien side effects muscle aches
tramadol no prescription buy tramadol ireland - tramadol withdrawal and depression
order ambien without prescriptions ambien brand name drug - generic medication ambien cr
percocet 325mg percocet 512 how many milligrams is it - percocet withdrawal muscle pain
order tramadol online tramadol buy online usa - tramadol hcl 50 mg for headaches
ambien for sale online ambien cr kids - ambien strengths
buy tramadol online cod overnight buy tramadol soma - tramadol hcl er 150
buy ambien online ambien 8 hour flight - ambien 10 panel drug test
buy tramadol 100mg buy tramadol uk online - buy tramadol nz
buy ambien ambien zyrtec - price of ambien
percocet buy buy percocet online no prescription legally - percocet dosage toothache
buy tramadol online no prescription can take 2 tramadol 50mg - tramadol dosage and administration
order percocet percocet addiction methadone - beat percocet withdrawal
generic tramadol buy viagra tramadol - tramadol online mastercard
buy tramadol overnight tramadol for dogs same as humans - order tramadol online cheap
buy tramadol no prescription buy tramadol online eu - order tramadol online overnight
generic zolpidem ambien withdrawal sweating - side effects of ambien cr and alcohol
tramadol online tramadol apap 37.5 dosage - order tramadol online no prescription
buy tramadol cash on delivery tramadol hcl nsaid - buy tramadol online without script
discount soma soma drug directions - buy soma panties
buy ambien can ambien overdose kill you - ambien side effects heart rate
purchase percocet percocet que es - percocet withdrawal long
order tramadol online cod buy tramadol with cod - tramadol 50mg vs lortab
buy tramadol with cod tramadol 800mg ibuprofen - tramadol mg get high
buy tramadol online reviews tramadol hcl obat - tramadol 50mg tablets
buy tramadol online no prescription overnight buy tramadol for dogs uk - tramadol online international
soma online pharmacy drug class for soma - reviews for soma bras
buy tramadol overnight high does tramadol make you - tramadol hcl 50 mg a narcotic
buy ambien online ambien side effects back pain - ambien walrus car keys
tramadol buy tramadol hydrochloride online - buy tramadol hydrochloride online uk
buy tramadol 50mg buy tramadol online eu - buy-tramadol.info
buy tramadol online tramadol dosage restless leg syndrome - tramadol withdrawal emily post
buy carisoprodol online soma online no prescription overnight - soma medication withdrawal
carisoprodol soma dosage for soma medication - soma generic name
where to buy tramadol tramadol que es - buy tramadol thailand
generic tramadol venta tramadol online - how to purchase tramadol online
where to buy tramadol online tramadol hcl generic ultram - buy tramadol rx online
order tramadol online mastercard buy tramadol with cod - buy cheap tramadol online
buy soma online generic soma pill identification - soma medication for migraines
buy ambien online overnight delivery ambien cr narcotic - buy ambien online no rx
buy tramadol online cheap tramadol 50mg good pain - tramadol high doses
tramadol online no prescription best place buy tramadol online - buy tramadol online tennessee
soma without prescription who makes generic soma - soma frames
cheap soma buy discount soma online - buy soma everwear
buy tramadol online mastercard overnight tramadol kidney disease - tramadol hcl hydrocodone
buy tramadol online no prescription overnight buy tramadol ultram - tramadol hcl and ibuprofen
soma online generic soma mg - soma horas minutos online
carisoprodol drug soma muscle relaxer narcotic - buy soma online usa
tramadol online buy tramadol 100mg online - tramadol 50mg oxycodone
buy tramadol in florida pill max order tramadol ultram online - tramadol dosage veterinary
buy tramadol online with mastercard tramadol online in europe - tramadol dosage men
buy tramadol tramadol legal to buy online - tramadol hcl odt
buy soma soma drug class - soma buy online no prescription
buy tramadol mexico tramadol 50mg tablets dosing - tramadol drug interactions
buy soma soma fm listen online - crystal castles soma san diego 2012
tramadol 50mg buy tramadol online us - rx europe online pharmacy tramadol
soma for sale soma 01915 - soma drug label
tramadol 50mg tramadol online uk - buy tramadol for dogs uk
buy tramadol free shipping tramadol 50mg can you snort - order tramadol overnight
discount soma soma medication controlled substance - soma 008
viagra no prescription buy viagra online from australia - viagra online amazon
buy soma soma cost street - buy discount soma online
buy tramadol india buy tramadol online next day delivery - buy tramadol online echeck
soma online soma 350 mg indication - aura-soma online readings
order soma online soma pills controlled substance - aura soma online store
buy viagra female herbal viagra for women - buy viagra ho chi minh
tramadol 50mg buy tramadol at walmart - tramadol 37.5 high
buy viagra online cheap 100 mg viagra - buy viagra online fast delivery
order carisoprodol online soma muscle relaxer and pregnancy - soma costco hours
viagra no prescription overnight delivery viagra online natural - can you buy viagra no prescription
viagra online viagra online uk next day delivery - cheap viagra deals
buy viagra where can i buy viagra online safely - viagra for women jimmy kimmel
buy viagra online overnight buy-viagra-online-50mg - viagra online overnight
buy viagra cialis is generic viagra online real - buy viagra london
buy viagra online viagra soft tabs dosage - viagra dosage altitude sickness
buy cialis prescription online cialis daily and prostatectomy filetype ppt - cialis online legale
where to order viagra order generic viagra overnight - viagra online natural
buy generic cialis can you buy cialis over the counter in spain - cialis us pharmacy
buy tramadol online buy tramadol cod personal check - buy tramadol pay with mastercard
viagra online viagra online free trial - viagra vs cialis vs levitra
cheap cialis cialis daily use does work - buy cialis professional online
tramadol online cheap tramadol no prescription needed - tramadol for dogs itching
buy viagra online cheap generic viagra pills - legit cheap viagra
mail order viagra online cheap 100 mg viagra - viagra 25mg
viagra pills generic viagra online fast shipping - can buy viagra dubai
buy tramadol tramadol withdrawal chest pain - tramadol 50 mg order online
buy viagra super active tosh.0 viagra - generic viagra reviews india
tramadol online tramadol dosage forms - order tramadol legally
buy soma soma fm online radio - soma bras usanapolis
buy tramadol no prescription tramadol dosage elderly - tramadol online no prescription usa
buy viagra cheap buy viagra online paypal - viagra robin williams
buy cialis online overnight shipping buy cialis online fast - cheap cialis
order viagra professional natural viagra for women uk - buy viagra online in nz
tramadol online overnight tramadol hcl vicodin - tramadol 50 mg back pain
buy tramadol 180 tramadol hcl 50 mg tab uses - side effects tramadol hci 50mg
order viagra online overnight viagra 50mg price - buy viagra online best sites
buy viagra 100mg pfizer viagra online cheap - buy viagra uk tesco
buy tramadol online ultram side effects headache - tramadol for opiate addiction
generic tramadol online buy tramadol online with paypal - tramadol 50mg dosage dogs
buy tramadol without rx buy tramadol online from usa - tramadol 50 mg dosing
order viagra online overnight buy viagra discount - buy viagra australia
sildenafil no prescription buy viagra with paypal uk - buy cheap pfizer viagra online
tramadol online tramadol ingredients medicine - buy tramadol cod fedex
buy tramadol online no prescription overnight buy tramadol hydrochloride 50mg - tramadol 500mg
buy viagra online buy viagra online cheap uk - buy viagra online cheap canada
buy viagra online viagra online without prescription+25 mg - viagra first time dosage
buy tramadol no rx tramadol compared to vicodin - buy tramadol 24x7
cheap tramadol online pharmacy review tramadol - how can i buy tramadol online
cialis online cialis sample coupon - order cialis online with prescription
tramadol online tramadol for dogs cough - buy tramadol overnight no prescription
buy viagra online no rx viagra online rx - buy viagra at walmart
tramadol 50 tramadol buy usa - tramadol for dogs cough
generic viagra 50mg viagra online uk paypal - safe purchase viagra online
buy tramadol online buy tramadol online no prescription usa - tramadol withdrawal vs vicodin withdrawal
order tramadol no prescription can u buy tramadol over counter - tramadol take get high
generic cialis get cialis online - buy viagra or cialis online
buy tramadol online online pharmacy tramadol cheap - tramadol hydrochloride overdose symptoms
buy tramadol mastercard 50 mg tramadol lot - buy tramadol online 100mg
tramadol online cod tramadol dosage weight dogs - online tramadol no prescription overnight
tramadol 100mg is buying tramadol online illegal - tramadol online pharmacy usa
buy tramadol online no prescription cheap tramadol 50mg - tramadol dosage to get high
buy tramadol online with mastercard tramadol online no prescription usa - tramadol withdrawal wellbutrin
buy tramadol cheap tramadol buy - buy tramadol australia online
tramadol online tramadol (ultram) prescribing information - tramadol 100mg online
tramadol 50mg tramadol 50mg recommended dosage - tramadol overdose itching
buy tramadol tramadol 627 recommended dosage - order tramadol online without prescription
tramadol online no prescription tramadol withdrawal and sneezing - tramadol for dogs vomiting
buy tramadol without a script tramadol hcl erowid - tramadol hcl schedule
order tramadol buy tramadol australia online - buy tramadol online in florida
Post a Comment